INTRODUCTION:

Euphorbia trigona the African milk tree, or Miller (Euphorbiaceae), is a succulent shrub indigenous to Central Africa that is extensively grown as a decorative plant¹. It has typical euphorbia traits, such as triangular stems with spines and white latex, despite being mistaken for a cactus². Although its latex is known to be toxic and irritating, E. trigona has historically been utilized in African and Indian traditional medicine to treat infections, inflammation, and skin conditions³. Its antibacterial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic qualities may be attributed to the presence of diterpenoids, triterpenoids, flavonoids, and sterols, according to phytochemical research.⁴

Despite these discoveries, there is still a dearth of scientific information regarding its toxicity, pharmacological processes, and bioactive components^.5 Thus, the purpose of this study is to identify areas that need more research while summarizing the present understanding of Euphorbia trigona's botany, traditional applications, phytochemistry, and biological activity.⁶

Table 1: Euphorbia trigona Its Taxonomy and Classification

Taxonomic Rank	Classification
Kingdom	Plantae
Common name	African milk tree
Family	Euphorbiaceae
Subfamily	Euphorbiodeae
Tribe	Euphrbieae
Clade	Tracheophytes
Native range	Central Africa
Plant type	Succulent
Key features	Milky latex sap (toxic)

Table 2: Euphorbia trigona Vernaclar name and State origin

Vernacular Name	Language/Region	State Origin (of usage)
African milk tree	English common name	Used generally across India
Cathedral cactus	English common name	Used generally across India
Abyssinian euphorbia	English common name	Used generally across India
Trikonasiju	General name (likely Hindi/Sanskrit origin)	General (Mentioned in an index of names)
Amla Family (आँवला फैमिली)	Hindi (for the family Euphorbiaceae)	General across North and Central India
Dudhi (दूधी)	Marathi/ Hindi (for other Euphorbia species)	Maharashtra/ General

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION:

The tropical regions of Central Africa, including Angola, Gabon, Cameroon, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, are home to Euphorbia trigona Miller, a member of the Euphorbiaceae family^7. It usually grows in rocky and arid savanna environments, where it prefers full sun and well-drained soil⁸ E. trigona has been extensively introduced and grown throughout Africa, Asia, and the Americas as an ornamental plant and for use as a living fence because of its drought resistance and stunning columnar growth shape^.9 The species has grown naturalized in gardens and urban settings in many tropical and subtropical locations, including as India, Southeast Asia, and portions of South America^.10.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION:

The African milk tree or cathedral cactus, Euphorbia trigona Miller (family Euphorbiaceae), is a perennial succulent shrub that can reach a height of two to three meters.¹¹. Despite being mistaken for a cactus because of its upright, fleshy stems, it is botanically unique because it is a member of the Euphorbiaceae family and yields a milky latex that is typical of the genus Euphorbia ¹² The stem-succulent plant has green stems with three to four angles and noticeable ridges at each edge.¹³ These ridges have small, obovate leaves that emerge close to the terminals of the ridges and are rapidly lost in dry conditions, as well as paired brown thorns that are around 3–5 mm long ¹⁴

In order to survive in arid areas, the stems are glabrous, smooth, and water-storing¹⁵.

Because E. trigona rarely blooms outside of its natural area, its tiny, inconspicuous flowers are rarely seen in cultivation. When the plant is damaged, it releases a white, latex-like sap that is known to irritate skin and mucous membranes and may be poisonous. Since seed generation is uncommon, stem cuttings are the main method of reproduction¹⁶

Fig. No. 1: Leaves and branches

PHYTOCHEMISTRY:

The numerous biological and pharmacological effects of the genus Euphorbia are attributed to its rich and varied secondary metabolites. Like other species in the genus, Euphorbia trigona Miller has a variety of bioactive chemicals that are mostly found in its latex, stems, and leaves^.17

Diterpenoids: especially the cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial properties of ingol-type and ingenane-type diterpenes^.18

1. Triterpenoids: Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds have been found, including friedelin, lupeol, and β-amyrin

2. Flavonoids and Phenolic Compounds: These include kaempferol, quercetin, and their glycosides, which help the plant scavenge free radicals

3. Sterols: According to Rachhadi et al., sterols including stigmasterol and β-sitosterol have anti-inflammatory and anticancer qualities. Proteins and Lectins: E. trigona lectins produced from latex have demonstrated antifungal and antiproliferative properties in vitro.¹⁹

Latex Composition and Biological Significance:

Terpenoids, lipids, proteins, and enzymes are all abundant in the complex emulsion that is E. trigona's milky latex. In addition to showing possible anticancer action at controlled concentrations, latex diterpenes, especially ingenol derivatives, have been linked to cytotoxic and pro-inflammatory activities.²⁰

Extractive and Analytical Studies:

The existence of many oxygenated terpenes, phenolic acids, and sterol derivatives in E. trigona extracts has been verified by recent analytical investigations employing GC–MS and HPLC techniques. Fractions with antioxidant, antibacterial, and wound-healing qualities have been produced using supercritical CO2 extraction. In contrast to other Euphorbia species, thorough phytochemical profiling of E. trigona is still lacking despite these discoveries. To separate, describe, and measure its bioactive components as well as investigate their pharmacological actions, more research is required^21.

PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES:

1. Antimicrobial Activity:

E. trigona extracts, especially those from latex and stems, have shown antibacterial and antifungal qualities against pathogens such Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus. Diterpenoids and phenolic chemicals that interfere with microbial cell membranes and metabolic activities are responsible for these effects^.22

2. Antioxidant Activity:

In vitro, E. trigona's flavonoids, phenolic acids, and sterols significantly reduce oxidative stress by scavenging free radicals .Such antioxidant capability raises the possibility of preventive effects against oxidative damage-related chronic illnesses.²³

3. Cytotoxic and Anticancer Activity:

By causing apoptosis and preventing cell growth, latex-derived diterpenes, particularly ingenol derivatives, have demonstrated cytotoxic effects against cancer cell lines, including leukemia and breast cancer models^.24

4. Anti-inflammatory Activity:

In experimental studies, the triterpenoids and sterols found in E. trigona have shown anti-inflammatory qualities by lowering the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines ^.25

5. Wound Healing and Dermatological Effects:

In traditional medicine, topical use of latex or extracts has been shown to enhance wound healing and prevent microbial infection; however, due to the latex's irritating properties, caution is needed Euphorbia trigona has a variety of pharmacological possibilities overall, but further in vivo and clinical research is required to determine its efficacy, safety, and mechanisms of action^.26

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH:

1. First. Bioactive compound isolation and characterisation. Diterpenoids, triterpenoids, sterols, and lectins are only a few of the types of chemicals that have been identified in E. Many of the structures and biological mechanisms of trigona and similar species are still unknown. Pure chemicals from E should be isolated in future research trigona, ascertain their structures, and evaluate their mechanistic functions in pertinent biological models²⁷

2. Detailed safety profiles, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics Although E. trigona extracts and compounds have been shown to exhibit cytotoxic, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties in vitro, in vivo research, dosage optimization, metabolism, and toxicity data are conspicuously lacking. Acute and chronic toxicity, absorption/distribution/ metabolism/ excretion, and safe therapeutic windows should all be covered by research^.28

3. Standardized formulation and extraction research. The yield and activity of chemicals are impacted by variations in extraction techniques (solvents, temperature, plant part) (e.g., supercritical CO2 extraction vs. standard methods). Future studies should optimize for the maximum production of active compounds, standardize extraction processes for reproducibility, and create topical and oral formulations appropriate for preclinical and clinical testing^29.

4. Research on target pathways and mechanisms. The physiological and molecular processes underlying many of the bioactivities that have been observed—such as anticancer, antibacterial, and wound healing—remain unclear. For instance, the latex proteins found in E. trigona block ribosomes; however, it is yet unknown how these proteins affect downstream signaling, selectivity, and off-target consequences. Molecular targets, signaling pathways, and correlations between structure and activity should be the main emphasis of research^.30

CONCLUSION:

The succulent plant Euphorbia trigona Miller, which is indigenous to Central Africa, exhibits notable phytochemical diversity and medicinal potential. Bioactive substances such diterpenoids, triterpenoids, flavonoids, and sterols found in its stems, leaves, and latex have antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, and wound-healing properties. Although the latex is poisonous and irritating, traditional uses in folk medicine are consistent with these pharmacological qualities, emphasizing the need for careful application.
Comprehensive phytochemical profiling, mechanistic research, and clinical trials are still scarce despite increased interest. To identify active ingredients, clarify how they work, and assess safety and effectiveness in vivo, more investigation is needed. Euphorbia trigona is a good candidate for drug development, pharmacological research, and sustainable horticulture due to its ornamental value, medicinal potential, and capacity to adapt to arid circumstances.

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20. Singh, P., Sharma, V., and Kumar, A. Phytochemical profiling and ethnomedicinal relevance of Euphorbia species with special reference to E. trigona. Plants. 2022; 14(3): 469. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14030469

21. Tobajas, N., et al. Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Euphorbia-derived compounds. DOAJ. 2023

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Received on 16.11.2025 Revised on 10.12.2025

Accepted on 31.12.2025 Published on 15.04.2026

Available online from April 18, 2026

Asian J. Pharm. Res. 2026; 16(2):207-210.

DOI: 10.52711/2231-5691.2026.00031

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